The History of Women´s Right - 1217 Words

Before the 19th century women suffered a great deal of abhorrence, relegation, discrimination and subjugation. The traditional woman roles were limited to the categorical imperatives of society. Women lacked equality and humanistic significance based on these roles as a domesticated woman. The types of jobs accessible were being a housewife, producing children, being maids, a secretary, and anything else considered an inferior occupation subjected under the dominated males, particularly in the European and American societies. The sheer scope of American social patterns and local policies separated men and women; but the ones that suffered the consequences of those outlooks were women. There was the recurrent mental and physical maltreatment and ill-willed abuse, which was complicated for women to oppose because society conditioned women to be vulnerable. Additionally, perhaps many women feared the possible consequences to their opposition, such as total isolation from male members of the family, possible religious punishment, and social shunning. Fortunately, there was a revolutionary movement that altered the benign traditional roles that brought much profit, which enabled women to step out of the traditional gender roles and into androgynous roles; that movement was worldly known as the Enlightenment era. The Enlightenment was a cultural movement of reasoning and intellect which began in the late 17th century in Europe emphasizing individualism and reasoning rather thanShow MoreRelatedWomen s Rights Throughout History1539 Words   |  7 PagesWomen’s Rights throughout History Today and throughout history, women have had to face a vast amount of discrimination towards themselves in politics, the workplace, and in the effort to receive a better education. Within the past decades, women have been discriminated against in many different aspects and have struggled throughout their day-to-day lives. However, many people have also taken significant action in standing up for the female population and working to improve their lives. Many individualsRead MoreWomen ´s Right: History of Women in Canada Essay661 Words   |  3 PagesWomen are weak, and they need to be protected. Men are strong, and they are always better than women. This is what most of the people has been thinking from the ancient time to modern days. Even though there are no evidence, and it is just a stereotype, people still believe it is true. Canada also has the same problem. Women in Canada were not allowed to vote in 1900’s, and got less benefits compared to men. Therefore, Canadia n women has tried to prove that they are also strong, and can do whateverRead MoreEssay on Women ´s Legal Right Throughout History634 Words   |  3 PagesThroughout US, History women have had fewer legal rights and career opportunities than men mainly because women have always been considered weaker than men. According to www.wic.org household chores, was left to women while the man hunted and plowed the fields. Back then a women’s traditional role was always seen as a social role. For example, one stereotype of a women’s role throughout the US history is â€Å"a women’s place is in the house† and during those times it largely determined how women viewed andRead MoreWomen s Rights Throughout Marjane Satrapi s Persepolis And History Essay2310 Words   |  10 PagesKatie Rombeiro Dr. Haun P.7 Lit 2110 5 December 2016 Women’s Rights Throughout Marjane Satrapi’s Persepolis and History: 1979-1995 Before the Iranian Revolution, many women in Iran took possession of many basic opportunities and rights. These rights included the ability to wear less of full coverage clothing, freedom of speech, a much better equality standing with men, having the Family Protection Law, all while making progress in participation of education. In 1925 when Reza Shah Pahlavi came intoRead MoreThe Women s Rights Movement1547 Words   |  7 PagesFlorida SouthWestern State College The Women’s Rights Movement What was the significance of the Seneca Falls Convention on the Women’s Rights Movement? Jennifer Flores AMH2010 Mr. Stehlin 16 November 2015 The Women’s Rights Movement began in 1848 with the first assembly of women and men gathering to discuss the civil, social, and other conditions of women. The Seneca Falls Convention was the start of the women’s movement. The two women who organized this event were Lucretia Mott andRead MoreRalph Waldo Emersons Connection To Transcendentalism1223 Words   |  5 Pagesinvolved viewing women as equal. Philip F. Gura, Transcendentalism and Social Reform, History Now, assessed May 14, 2017, https://www.gilderlehrman.org/history-by-era/first-age-reform/essays/transcendentalism-and-social-reform. Emerson s support for women s suffrage prompted him to write A Reasonable Reform to promote anti-suffrage and allow women to vote so that it [brings] together a cultivated society of both sexes. Ralph Waldo Emerson, A Reasonable Reform (1881), in Women s Suffrage AssociationRead MoreWomens Rights Movement1336 Words   |  6 PagesThe Women’s Rights Movement Women’s Suffrage is a subject that could easily be considered a black mark on the history of the United States. The entire history of the right for women to vote takes many twists and turns but eventually turned out alright. This paper will take a look at some of these twists and turns along with some of the major figures involved in the  suffrage  movement.   The first recorded instance in American history where a woman demanded the right to vote was in 1647. MargaretRead MoreSummary : Womens Suffrage 1121 Words   |  5 PagesShay Gupta Mr Schwab World History Honors Womens Suffrage When slavery was abolished, people finally managed to realize one simple thing- its just a pigment in our skin that makes us different. But why couldn t they realize another thing- its just our sex organs that make us different? Until the fairly recent 1920, women and men were held so different they were not even allowed to cast their ballots for the president of the United States. It drove some women, such as Elizabeth Cady Stanton andRead MoreWomen s Movement Of History1351 Words   |  6 Pages                                 Women s Movement in History Setitra Y Malcolm Southern New Hampshire University    Women’s Movement in History Through countless decades women have been struggling to be equal to men, both at home, politics and the work place. Starting back from the 1800s to mid-1900s, numerous women took time out of their day to step out and fight for what they believed in and that was women’s rights.   Women were gaining incredible ground amid the 1840s and 50s. They were currentlyRead MoreThe First Wave Of Women950 Words   |  4 PagesThere have been numerous women throughout history whom have influenced and helped spread change for feminism. The first wave feminists (from the 1800’s to the early 20th century) started numerous organizations to help and support women’s rights and also helped in part of passing legislations that further aid the rights granted to women. Some of the most important first wave feminists include Susan B. Anthony and Alice Paul. The second wave feminists (from the mid 20th century to late 20th century)

Describe the Role of Hr Professionals in Designing Free Essays

Introduction This question asks to address how bullying policies and procedures are a task of HR to implement in the workplace therefore this answer will define exactly what bullying is, what policies should be in place and any recommendations for the occurrence of bullying in the workplace. Relevant case examples will be used to support the argument along with relevant referenced authors, on this topic. On concluding, how bullying can be prevented will be reflected on after stating what the future may hold for bullying in the workplace. We will write a custom essay sample on Describe the Role of Hr Professionals in Designing or any similar topic only for you Order Now What is bullying? Since the shift from Uni-cultural societies to multi-cultural societies in recent times, there has been a significant decrease in perceived inequalities in the workplace. However, the issue of bullying is still prominent in many organisations, (especially throughout Ireland today). Baillien et al. (2009) defines bullying as persistent negative behaviour at work in which the victim is subject to psychological, physical or sexual acts by the perpetrator and often find themselves in a position where they are unable to defend themselves. The analysis carried out found that bullying, or some form of harassment, was likely to occur out of one of three pathways: interpersonal frustrations, interpersonal conflict and intragroup level. The problem with the latter is that the culture of gossip within organisations has become a norm and hence the certain behaviours by perpetrators may often be overlooked. Although bullying is often associated with actions that people carry out, it also includes actions that individuals fail to do such as providing necessary training to a particular employee. For example, if new technology is introduced into the firm, extra training will be required. Hence, if bullying of a certain employee was occurring, this may lead to their deprivation of sufficient training which in turn will have a negative consequence for the entire firm. ) Within Maslow (1943) hierarchy of needs framework, safety needs are crucial to all employees and the victimisation due to bullying will prevent the fulfilment of t his need in the workplace. As a result, low productivity and low morale may be present within the workforce. Policies/Procedures As the question states, it is the task of the HR department to ensure the design implementation of policies and procedures to prevent or deal with the occurrence of workplace bullying. The event hierarchy of the bullying (reference) intervention process has three levels: the prevention zone which involves policy enquiries by the target, the intervention zone which begins with an informal complaint and may lead to a formal complaint, and the failure zone where legal action is taken. In order to prevent an employee reaching the highest level and engaging in legal action, it is the responsibility of HR to assist in dealing with the problem immediate to the first complaint. Bullying/Harassment must be occurring in the workplace as opposed to personal life conflicts between workers in order for HR to manage the situation but studies carried out in this area have shown that senior level management are often weak in dealing with issues of bullying or harassment. (Baillien et al. 009) Consequently, when HR is implementing practices, they need to ensure the co-operation and comprehension of senior level managers in this area. There are three main actions HR can take in order to reduce bullying situations. Firstly the implementation of clear, concise policies needs to be carried out which state unacceptable behaviours classed as bullying or harassment and the procedures an individual may take if found subjected to this behaviour. In addition to this, a Code of Conduct sh ould be established in order to set out training procedures for employees and management as a means of preventing 7workplace bullying. Within management training, conflict resolution and mediation skills need to be provided in order to act effectively. During the recruitment of management in an organisation, it is vital to ensure they have people management skills along with task related competence. Finally, often the most important thing HR and senior managers can do is lead by example. If policies and procedures are implemented but managers are not behaving in a way that complies entirely with these, then this could lead to adverse effects by subordinates. Example One primary example of where HR failed to act on behaviour of a new employee that initially was unacceptable by the firm but resulted in unacceptable behaviour to moral society was in relation to Rob Parsons within Morgan Stanley. (Burton, 1998) Parsons was hired to achieve a growth implementation strategy as Nasr believed he was the man to do it. However, a culture of strict policies and procedures within the organisation meant that Parsons Non-compliance immediately stood out. Initially, he was not involved with bullying but was seen as a ‘lone wolf’ within the firm, significantly seen through his inability to perform within a team. As time lapsed, HR and Parsons Management failed to confront him on his behaviour and essentially allowed the collapse of their organisational policies for him due to the fear he may leave the firm. Eventually, he was fired as a result of a bullying case that occurred at a client meeting. He had been making unacceptable critical remarks to a fellow female employee of the firm, humiliating her in front of the client. Hence, the occurrence of Parson’s psychological bullying was finally evident and may have been prevented if HR followed through with their policies with all employees including Rob Parsons. Future of Workplace Bullying Due to the increase of technology, the working environment now often extends into the realm of personal life. In effect, this may cause the enabling of workplace bullying to stretch further than the perimeter of the four walls of the organisation and in particular, social networking sites are a primary target for the extension of this bullying. However, since present policies and procedures focus on ‘workplace bullying’, victims may be limited to the actions they can take. With the growth in the integration of personal and work life, HR may be unable to re-address their policies to include outer work boundaries due to legal constraints. Although, conversely it may be easier to identify and prosecute the perpetrators of bullying or harassment if the behaviour extends to personal life, such as through social networking sites. Conclusion Bullying and harassment is often a topic ignored within the workplace as victims sometimes feel ashamed and managers choose not to deal with the problem. However it is the responsibility of HR to ensure these practices are implemented and abided by all, including management. Failure to do this will undoubtedly lead to extensive consequences such as reputational damage to the firm, direct costs including replacement costs and indirect costs such as low productivity. Although not a continuing case of bullying, the Morgan Stanley case briefly highlights how the failures of HR and senior management to address his unacceptable behaviour from the outset led to undesired effects, including his removal from the firm and legal action by a fellow employee. All in all, the prevention of workplace bullying can be assisted by appropriate practices carried out by HR. How to cite Describe the Role of Hr Professionals in Designing, Essay examples

Cuba Essay Research Paper The political and free essay sample

Cuba Essay, Research Paper The political and economic system known as Communism is being utilize in many states today. Communism is holding a batch of influence in our universe today. One of the states that have Communism as their authorities is Cuba. The grounds communism came to power in Cuba and when and how will be discussed every bit good, if it working or non. The theories in communism started with Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. Marx did non believe that the jobs of industrialisation could be solved by reforming capitalist society. He believed that a new economic and societal system should be developed. He based all his theories on scientific analysis of history. Karl and Engels thoughts were published in the Communist Manifesto. They had four chief thoughts: 1. Class Struggle # 8211 ; Communist believe that every society is divided into two groups, which are in changeless confrontation. These two groups are the middle class ( the capitalist ) and the Proletariat ( the working category ) 2. Communist Revolution # 8211 ; Communist believe that the middle class will neer willing give up their power. The state of affairs of workers will go so despairing that they finally will fall in together and get down a violent revolution to subvert the middle class. 3. Exploitation of workers # 8211 ; the rich prosper from the labour of their workers, go forthing them with the merely the lower limit needed to last. Because of this Marx believed it was necessary to get rid of private belongings. He believed that after the revolution, economic production would be in the custodies of the province. Class differentiation will vanish. 4. Dictatorship of the Proletariat # 8211 ; Workers will set up a society in which they jointly own the agency of production. # 8220 ; Workers of All Countries Unite. # 8221 ; All citizens will be equal, sharing the fruits of their labour. Class battles will stop. Government will go unneeded and # 8220 ; wither away. # 8221 ; Despite Marx influence on economic ideas bookmans found mistakes in his doctrine and revolution neer came. But Marx revolutions did happen in Russia, China, and Cuba but alternatively of the authorities shriveling off it became stronger. Cuba lies at the western terminal of the Antilles concatenation of Caribbean islands its capital is Havana. The island # 8217 ; s economic system made merely slow advancement during the early colonial period with Spain until the 18th century. In 1762 the British were able to capture Havana. They returned the metropolis to Spain in exchange for Florida. But during their short remain the British opened up a new Market for their merchandisers and helped establish Cuba # 8217 ; s export. In 1791 when Haiti # 8217 ; s sugar industry was destroyed, Cuba took over the function as the largest manufacturer of sugar in the Caribbean. In 1818 a royal edict opened Cuban ports to international trade and fueled the sugar roar further. The velocity of economic development was matched by the turning defeat among the Creoles ( people of Spanish decent born on the island ) and the peninsulares ( born in Spain ) . The peninsulares controlled the trade and were guaranteed the disposal # 8217 ; s top occupations, go forthing the Creoles with no say in the running of the authorities. Many of the wealthiest Creoles bourgeoisie favored reform, but non necessary a revolution. Jose Marti was the first adult male to specify precisely what the independency motion should be contending for, non merely self-government but democracy and societal justness. He advocated racial equality. He founded the Cuban Revolutionary Party ( PRC ) . Americans brought belongings in Cuba at deal monetary values since the Ten Years War left the Cuban Planters hapless. They shortly dominated the sugar industry, and by 1895 more than 90 % of Cuba # 8217 ; s saccharify went to the U.S. The USA declare war on Spain in 1898 and won and on December 10, 1898 the Treaty of Paris was signed behind the dorsums of the islande R and transferred power of Cuba to the United States. Washington allowed the Cubans to elect their ain authorities. On May 20 1902 Cuba was declare a Republic and had their first president. American monopolies corned about every domain of activity. They controlled electricity coevals and owned the railroads. By the 1920 # 8217 ; s U.S companies produced more than half the one-year harvest. The big estates created to run into the U.S appetency for sugar squeezed little Farmers out. Other harvests and industry were neglected, coercing Cuba to import everything from tomatoes to autos supplied by the US. Business bank histories swelled while ordinary Cubans to digest increasing poorness. There was a lifting choler at the corruptness of politicians. Gerardo Machado won the presidential term in 1924 with his motto # 8220 ; honestness in government. # 8221 ; He started out moderately good but subsequently introduced Cuba to its first barbarous military absolutism. The Communist portion called a general work stoppage in 1933, Colonial Fulgencio Batista with the aid of the Communist party won the presidential elections in 1940. He imposed the harshest absolutism Cuba had seen. He abolished the fundamental law, dissolved Congress, and crushed the resistance ruthlessly. Thousands died in the force, but that did non deter support from Washington Cuba enjoyed one of the highest per capita incomes in Latin America but wavered on the border of societal prostration. Misery reigned in the countryside while Havana glittered. The Cuban capital was one of Latin America # 8217 ; s most sophisticated metropoliss and a stating for hedonism the universe over. Fidel Castro was a Revolutionary leader. He leads an onslaught on the Moncada barracks in Santiago. He is arrested and later released and he leaves for Mexico. On 1956 Castro and 81 revolutionists returned to Cuba aboard a yacht and launch guerilla insurgence from the Sierra Maestra Mountains. Finally Batista flees Havana and ground forces resignations. Castro # 8217 ; s new authorities introduces countrified reform and other extremist alteration. On April 1961 the Bay of Pigs occur. This is when the U.S tried to occupy Cuba since Cuba confiscated all American assets. Two months subsequently Castro declared that he was a Marxist-leninist ( communist ) . With Cuba confronting complete isolation with U.S they had no option but to happen another defender. The state of affairs was easy solved. Russia was the reply. Anyone that was non with the revolution was consider as treasonists and was arrested. Trade brotherhoods were disbanded and the authorities controlled the media. There is undercover agents among the people to see who # 8217 ; s with the revolution or non, the 1s that are non are reported to the governments. Cubans started working excess hours non for excess money but for the award in making this for their ain state. A new fundamental law, approved by a referendum in1976, recognized Marxism-Leninist as the province beliefs and the Communist Party as the lone legal political organisation in the state. Fidel Castro # 8217 ; s place as caput of province became constitutional. Osvaldo Dorticos, marionette president since 1959, retired. The authorities can non afford to acknowledge that its economic policies are non working. It handless public declaration on the province of the economic system carefully. Castro clearly feels basically uncomfortable with the thought of making private wealth. Income revenue enhancement was introduced in January 1996, which wiped out many private concerns. Unemployment which were abolished in the 1960 # 8217 ; s, has returned to Cuba. Marx would be utterly dismayed and disappointed with the advancement in Cuba for his chief thought is to hold all the citizens satisfied and to hold no authorities in control. He wanted everyone to unify together. All the good facets of the rules of communism have non been followed doing the authorities of communism a bad one.

Proposal Assignment Essays - Ancient Greek Philosophy, Philosophy

Proposal Assignment Plato's theory against democracy is explained in Richard D. Parry's, "The Craft of Ruling in Plato's Euthydemus and Republic." Plato's theory against democracy is based on "craft". Plato doesn't believe that the general public should matter in making decisions, he believes that no matter which craft we do, it is the opinion of the experts in such craft that matter. On the topic of democracy, politics is a craft therefore not everyone can be a leader, you need experience and certain traits that qualify you to be a successful leader. However, Plato's theory is that "an expert with the skill of ruling will not be elected because citizens tend to vote for the most popular candidate" (Class Notes). When he mentions the most popular candidate, he is referring to a candidate that has good personal skills, says what people want to hear, true knowledge of the economy, etc. Parry states in his article that "craft analogy implies that craft is an instrumental good, not good in itself. Since Soc rates holds that virtue is good in itself, his account of virtue - in this case wisdom - in terms of craft is inconsistent" (2). This is basically explaining that Socrates had his virtue is good and that he had good wisdom but that his performance in his craft was inconsistent. The source I used to explain craft analogy is credible because it is an academic journal that was written by an author who received his Ph.D. and is a professor who's teaching and scholarly interests included the history of ancient Greek philosophy, philosophy of Plato, philosophy of Aristotle, medieval philosophy, and contemporary analytic philosophy. It is relevant to my proposal because it explain Plato's craft of ruling in depth. To object to Plato's theory, Dr. Kazuya Fukuoka explains why democracy works in his article "What Makes Democracy Work?". This is a credible source because it is written by a professor who received his Ph.D. and teaches "Introduction to Comparative Politics" at Saint Joseph's University. This helps my proposal because it is explaining why Democracy works which goes against Plato's theory of "craft ruling". He explains that democracy "is a system of government implemented with the intent that no one branch or department of government can ever gain too much power. There are limitations of power placed on each part of the government, thus forcing each department to work together, ensuring that the best interest of the people is maintained". This goes against Plato because Plato wants experts to make decisions and not the best interest of the people. He also states that "Democracy is also institutionalized through the voting process. Democracies are denoted by having free and fair electi ons (Linz and Stepan 1996, 15). This means that the voting process is for the most part untainted. Those running for offices are to run clean campaigns. No one person should have a monopoly of the media during their campaign. Each person should have the same ability to get there name and beliefs out there for the public to know". This also helps me go against Plato because this is the complete opposite of what Plato believed in and despised the idea of everybody having the same ability of becoming a leader. This can help me write my paper because it gives me an idea of why democracy works. It educates me on the functionality of democracy and how it works. So when comparing this to Plato's idea to democracy, it is very useful. These ideas presented in this article are all facts and don't involve any opinion to them so it is a credible source to use.

Austria 17Th & 18Th Centuries Essays - Knights Of The Golden Fleece

Austria 17Th & 18Th Centuries Essays - Knights Of The Golden Fleece Austria 17Th & 18Th Centuries Austria Keith Henriques History 21 August 22, 1999 In my paper I will examine the absolute monarchy of Austria during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. I shall focus on the on the power of Austria, its foundation, preservation, and expansion. Lastly I will take into consideration the relationship between the classes, the growth of the power of state institutions, and some of the consequential figures in the evolution of absolute monarchy in Austria. The foundation of absolutism was the theory of the divine right of kings. This theory maintained that the monarch was God's representative on earth. In reality absolutism was a closer working relationship with the nobles in order to maintain control. Ensuring the power of the nobles meant solidifying his authority. The bureaucracy began to reorganize, making it more effective on the local level. Local and national government began to meet on a regular basis. This was done by dividing the monarchy into ten units, then dividing it further into ten subdistricts. Kreishauptmann were the administrative heads of each district, appointed by the King to work at the local level. All this helped to extend the monarch's power to the far reaches of the domain. To the people this basically meant that not only was the king a supreme ruler but he could emphasize his will with armies of unmatched size giving the idea of absolutism an illustration and an authenticity never seen before. With this need for a standing army came the need for new funds. These new funds gave way to a new system of tax collection. Throughout history the war and taxes have gone hand in hand. The goal of every monarch was to have independent power and only economic independence could make that possible. Maria Teresa (r. 1740-1780) won approval of the realm to administer property tax on all subjects. These new funds were used to reform and build up Austria's depleted military. She expanded military academies, increased the size of her standing army, and even created a Hungarian army. The very nature of absolute monarchies created the need for state religion. If the people were to believe God had appointed the king, they better all believe in the same god. One of the few successes of the Counter Reformation was that all of Austria's nobility was converted back to Catholicism. Finally religious predominance could be used for the creation of an Austrian state. Then later on in Austrian history you'll see that the state even goes as far as to begin taxing the church. During Maria Theresa's reign the church was no longer exempt from taxation. The government then began to issue regulations to the amount men and women to enter in monastic institutes. This was a ploy by the government to tap into the wealth of the nobility. No longer could the nobles hide their money under the shroud of the church. Then under Joseph the II (r. 1780-1790) all non-productive religious institutions were closed. All together there were 700 monastic orders closed, leaving only the charitable, nursing, and educational institutions continuing to function. This freed up church funds for philanthropic endeavors. Priests then became state employees. While across the Atlantic they were trying to separate church and state, Austria was making the bond even stronger. Another way that the absolutist monarchs of Austria maintained their power was the creation of a court at Vienna. Beginning with Leopold I (r. 1658-1705), there was a promotion of the court as the center of political and social life. This turned Vienna into a city not only for the nobles but for businessmen as well. Leopold, unlike the Hapsburg rulers before him, was not a great ruler. He was a deeply religious man with no interest in the grandiosity of the great European Kings before him. He himself was a composer and his benefaction was a main reason for Vienna becoming the great musical center that it was renowned for. Leopold had plans for a grand palace, Schonbrunn, which was to surpass Versailles. These all contributed to the centralization of the government. The King finally could seek counsel of entrusted nobles and yet keep a watchful eye on those that would do him harm. Early on during Leopold's rule

128 Words with Senses That Started Out as Underworld Slang

128 Words with Senses That Started Out as Underworld Slang 128 Words with Senses That Started Out as Underworld Slang 128 Words with Senses That Started Out as Underworld Slang By Mark Nichol The slang senses of many words we use in conversation and in informal writing originated in jargon employed by criminals, often coined to disguise the activities they were describing when they spoke among one another. This post lists and defines a number of those words. action: bet, or betting, or criminal activity aggro: aggressive behavior angle: approach, or plan bananas: crazy (originally, â€Å"sexually perverted†) beat: escape, avoid beef: quarrel blow: leave boob: stupid person boost: steal bought: bribed break it up: stop argument or fight broad: woman buddy: man (as in addressing a person the speaker does not know) bum’s rush: act of being forcibly removed bump/bump off: kill bunk: nonsense buy: bribe case: check the site of a potential robbery chisel: cheat clam up: stop talking, or refuse to talk, to avoid giving information con: scheme to trick someone into relinquishing money con man: person who steals through trickery cop/copper: police officer or private detective crew: group of rank-and-file criminals subordinate to a leader; by extension, a group of people with whom one associates crumb: worthless person; originally, a noncriminal deep-six: bury dive: low-quality establishment, such as a dark, dingy bar doll: attractive woman dope: drugs, or information dough: money dump: see dive Feds: federal law-enforcement personnel fence: trade stolen items, or one who does so finger: identify fix: situation in which law-enforcement personnel have been bribed to overlook criminal activity fruit: homosexual (derogatory) fuzz: police glom: steal (by extension, â€Å"grab†) go straight: cease criminal activity goofy: crazy (by extension, â€Å"silly†) goon: low-level criminal graft: see con grand: thousand (dollars) grease: see buy grill: interrogate grifter: see â€Å"con man† haywire: mentally unbalanced heat: attention from law-enforcement personnel, or a gun (by extension, â€Å"psychological pressure†) heel: an incompetent criminal (by extension, â€Å"a villain or someone who takes on a villainous persona or role,† as in professional wrestling) hit: planned murder (by extension, â€Å"an attack on someone’s reputation†) hood(lum): see goon horn: telephone hot: stolen hype: cheat by short-changing, or hypodermic needle jam: trouble, or a troublesome situation jaw: talk joe: coffee joint: place junkie: drug user keister: buttocks, or a safe kisser: mouth knock off: see bump/â€Å"bump off† knock over: rob large: see grand lay low: remain out of sight so as to avoid attention after committing a crime legit: pertaining to legal business activities lit: drunk loan shark: one who loans money at high rates of interest looker: see doll lug: stupid person (by extension, â€Å"clumsy person†- often used affectionately and jocularly) mark: person targeted to be a victim of criminal activity marker: IOU, note acknowledging a debt mitt: hand muscle: force, or intimidate, or someone who forces or intimidates mug: face nail: capture nick: steal nix: no, or say no to something on the carpet: situation in which a criminal is called on the carpet, or disciplined, by a leader (by extension, pertains to any similar event) on the lam: moving secretly to avoid arrest after committing a crime on the spot: targeted for assassination (by extension, pertaining to being held accountable for a failure or mistake) packing heat: armed with a gun patsy: person framed for a crime (by extension, â€Å"fool†) paw: hand piece: share of the proceeds from criminal activity (see action), or a gun pig: police officer pinch: arrest pop: see bump/â€Å"bump off† punk: see goon (originally, a submissive homosexual) put the screws on: see grill queer: counterfeit rap: criminal charge rat: give information about associates’ criminal activities to law-enforcement personnel, or someone who does so ringer: fake rub out: see bump/â€Å"bump off† rube: easy victim sap: stupid person score: succeed in obtaining stolen money or goods scram: see blow scratch: money sing: see rat (verb) skip out: leave without paying skirt: woman slug: punch, or knock unconscious, or a bullet snatch: kidnap sock: punch spill: see rat (verb), or talk (verb) square: honest stiff: corpse sting: see con (by extension, â€Å"a law-enforcement operation to prompt and observe criminal behavior†) stir: jail stir-crazy: mentally disturbed because of incarceration stool pigeon/stoolie: see rat (noun) straighten out: resolve a dispute string along: deceive sucker: see rube swag: stolen goods (by extension, â€Å"gifts offered to promote through publicity†) tag: designation (by extension, â€Å"graffiti signature†) tail: track a criminal’s activities, or a law-enforcement official who does so take: share of profits from criminal activity take a powder: leave take (someone) for a ride: see bump/â€Å"bump off† take the fall: be targeted for blame for a crime tighten the screws: pressure trap: see kisser two bits: twenty-five cents vendetta: vow of vengeance (by extension, â€Å"a passionate, sustained effort to avenge oneself or one’s family or group†) yap: see kisser Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Vocabulary category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:4 Types of Gerunds and Gerund PhrasesHow to Pronounce Mobile15 Idioms for Periods of Time

INTERPRETING FINANCIAL STATEMENTS Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

INTERPRETING FINANCIAL STATEMENTS - Essay Example (b) Chieftain has a large volume of cash balance which can be helpful for the company to pay off its current obligations easily. It improves the liquidity position of the company. However, it can be disadvantageous for the company too because idle cash would not earn any return for the company and would limit the company’s growth in future. (c) Chieftain has $4.6 million as accounts payable instead of having so much cash balance. It is so because the company might be finding difficulties to generate sufficient cash from its operations or might have higher inventory levels. (a) According to Kranhold (2007), the employees of General Electric (GE) were engaged in the practice of using improper accounting methods to record the revenues generated by the company during the years 2000 to 2003. (b) The possible reasons behind these activities being conducted by the employees of GE can be some personal incentives for the managers if they are able to generate higher revenues for the company. Another possibility can be that the employees might have been instructed by the top level managers of the company to conduct such activities so that it can mislead its investors by showing a better financial position of the organization. (d) Restating the financial results mean reviewing the previously published financial statements of the company to make adjustments for any kinds of errors that might be present in the disclosed financial information or may be due to some changes in accounting policies made by the company. GE did not restate its financial results in order to rectify its reported locomotive sales because the related changes were not that significant as compared to the total revenues generated by GE or the income generated by them. Restating the financial results would have resulted in only 0.2% change in its reported

Introduction to fiction Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 1

Introduction to fiction - Essay Example Whilst searching for symbolism in the story, I cam across a few points like, â€Å"It was large enough so that it didn’t seem fragile, or particularly vulnerable if anyone sideswiped the table or Mondo blundered into it during play. She asked her husband to please not drop his house key in it. It was meant to be empty† (207). This excerpt primarily describes the fact that her husband, Andrea’s, was someone was not part of the bowl theory and could not identify with the symbol. When mentioning that she had bought the bowl at a craft fair in secret with her lover, it further signifies that she has been looking for her lost love and continuing affairs with him through the bowl. She must have not acted quickly enough to seize the moment with her lover, hence the line, â€Å"Her lover had said that she was always too slow to know what she really loved† (209). Through this we get the impression that perhaps she was too obsessed with the bowl to continue on with her affair. At one point it is shared that she even â€Å"†¦dreamed of the bowl. Twice in a waking dream-early in the morning, between sleep and the last nap before rising-she had a clear vision of it† (208). The bowl represented her affair and eventually it would be the bowl that ends her marriage. When looking back on the story, it opens with â€Å"The bowl was perfect† (206). Andrea feels like she made a mistake not admitting her affair and starting a life with her lover; therefore she loves the bowl as if it were her ex-lover and obsesses over it because to her, it is all she has left of him. She explains her guilt in this manner, â€Å"Sometimes in the morning, she would look at him (her husband) and feel guilty that she had such a constant secret† (208). She is continuing her affair through the bowl and is still having feelings of guilt. This further signifies her inertia with her ex-lover and clings on to the bowl in memory

Brazil Economy Essay Example for Free

Brazil Economy Essay A New Contender in the Global Economy? Throughout the latest research, newspaper or political science journal articles Brazil has been termed â€Å"an upcoming global power† or â€Å"international player†. This being seen specifically in Brazils global economic position. Brazil is the largest national economy in Latin America, the worlds seventh largest economy at market exchange rates and the seventh largest purchasing power parity, according to the international Monetarty Fund and the world bank. Brazil has a mixed economy with abundant natural resources. Brazil is rapidly becoming a large contender in the Global economy partly due to being one of the 17 mega diverse countries in the world, home to a variety of wildlife, natural environment and extensive natural resources in a variety of protected habitats. O’Neil sees Brazil as a powerhouse â€Å"because of its economic strength, its hemispheric leadership and its growing strategic role through multilateral international forums† (O’Neil 2010). The economy of Brazil is the worlds seventh largest by nominal GDP. Brazils economy is the largest in Latin American nations and comes in second best in the western hemisphere. With an average annual GDP growth rate over over 5 percent, Brazil comes in as one of the fastest- growing major economies in the world. In Brazilian real’s, Its GDP was estimated at R$4. 403 trillion in 2013. The Brazilian economy is predicted to become one of the five largest economies in the world in the decades to come. This is due to many factors including brazils involvement in a number of diverse economic organizations such as the mercosur, Unasul, G8+5, G20, WTO and the Cairns group. Its trade partner’s number in the hundreds, with 60 percent of exports mostly of manufactures or semi manufactures goods. Brazils main trade partners in 2008 were: Mercosul and Latin America (25. 9 percent of trade), EU (23. 4 percent), Asia (18. 9 percent), the United States (14. 0 percent), and the others (17. 8 percent). â€Å"Brazils economy has yet again become an object of fascination and speculation for international investors, academics, pundits and policymakers in the United States and Europe. As a country replete with natural resources, endowed with a large internal market and home to dynamic and increasingly global corporations, Brazil has been famously anoints as a ‘BRIS’- thus identified along with Russia, India and China as one of the four very large, rapidly emerging economies that are key growth engines of the global economy. † (Brainard 2009) Brazil is the largest economy of Latin America and its trade with the EU accounts for 37% of the EUs total trade with the Latin American region (2011). As regards investments, Brazil holds 43% of the entire EU Investment stocks in Latin America. The EU is Brazils first trading partner, accounting for 21. 7% of its total trade (2010). During the last 5 years bilateral trade between the EU and Brazil has grown on average by 8. 4% per year, showing the dynamism and complementarity of our trade relationship. EU imports from Brazil are dominated by primary products, in particular agricultural products (41%) and fuels and mining products (31%). But manufactured products such as machinery, transport equipment and miscellaneous manufactured products are also important: they represent around one fourth of Brazilian exports to the EU. Brazil is the single biggest exporter of agricultural products to the EU. EUs exports to Brazil consist mainly of manufactured products, such as machinery, transport equipment and chemicals. In goods, the EU runs an overall trade deficit with Brazil but has a surplus in commercial services trade. The EU is the biggest foreign investor in Brazil with investments in many sectors of the Brazilian economy. Around 50% of the  FDI  flows received by Brazil during the last 5 years was originating from the EU. Dilma Vana Rousseff  Ã‚  born 14 December 1947) is a  Brazilian  politician  who has been the  President of Brazil  since 1 January 2011. She is the first woman to hold the office. In October 2010, Rousseff was included in the  Forbes  list of the most powerful people in the world, at the 16th position. Rousseff powerful leadership has continued to keep Brazil a strong contender in the global economy since her election in 2011. â€Å"And perhaps most impressive, she has maintained a remarkable approval rating even with a three percent drop in economic growth.† (Freeman, 2012) It can be seen that Petrobras discovery of the lula oil field in 2006 was the concrete set up for Brazils global economic uprise. The  Lula oil field  (formerly  Tupi oil field) is a large oil field located in the  Santos Basin, 250 kilometres off the coast of  Rio de Janeiro,Brazil The field was nicknamed in honor of the  Tupi people  and later named after former Brazilian p resident  Luiz Inacio da Silva. It is considered to be the  Western Hemispheres largest oil discovery of the last 30 years. â€Å"BRAZIL’S discovery of oodles of offshore oil in 2006 felt like a transformative moment. † (Paulo 2012) The Lula field was discovered in October 2006 by Petrobras, with the well flowing 4,900 barrels per day of sweet 30 degrees API crude oil, 0. 7 sulphur content and 4. 3  million cubic feet per day (120,000 cubic metres per day) of gas from a deep sub-salt reservoir on a  16  mm choke. The former president of Brazil,  Luiz Inacio Lula da Silva  called the field second independence for Brazil. The field was originally named Tupi but in 2010 it was renamed Lula. The name Lula means a mollusc in Portuguese but also refers to Luiz Inacio Lula da Silva. The upper estimate of 8  billion barrels (1. 3 billion cubic metres) of recoverable oil would be enough to meet the total global demand for crude oil for about three months at the 2008 global extraction rate of around 85 million barrels per day. In January 2008 Petrobras announced the discovery of the  Jupiter field, a huge  natural gas  andcondensate  field which could equal the Lula oil field in size. It lies 37 kilometres east of Lula. Block BM-S-11, which contains the Lula field, is operated by  Petrobras  with a 65% controlling stake while  BG Group  holds 25% and  Galp Energia  has the remaining 10% interest. According to Bear Stearns  estimates, the value of the oil in the block ranges from $25 billion to $60 billion. BM-S-11 also includes  Tupi Sul,  Iara  and  Iracema  fields. REFERENCE LIST Brainard, L, 2009. Brazil as an economic superpower. 1st ed. Washington DC: The Brookings institution. Medeiros, V, 2010. Interview: Jim ONeil. Interview: Jim ONeil, 62, 1-4. Roett, R, 2010. New Brazil.1st ed. Washington DC: The Brookings institution. Hay, D. A, 2001. The Post-1990 Brazilian Trade Liberalisation and the Performance of Large Manufacturing Firms. The Post-1990 Brazilian Trade Liberalisation and the Performance of Large Manufacturing Firms: Productivity, Market Share and Profits, 111, 620-641. Freeman, M, 2012. Brazil Pres. Dilma Rousseff a Model of Leadership U. S. Politicians Should Follow. Brazil Pres. Dilma Rousseff a Model of Leadership U. S. Politicians Should Follow, 1, 1. Paulo, S, 2012. Oil in Brazil. The perils of Petrobras, 1, 1.

Their Eyes Were Watching God :: essays research papers

From the time Janie was a child she had problems fitting in with her peers. This was partly because of her nice clothing, wonderful complexion, and long beautiful hair. Janie's grandmother encouraged her to be different from her peers. She wanted to make up for her past mistakes raising children by having Janie become the person that she never was able to be.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  During Janie's early childhood she plays with the grandchildren of Ms. Washburn. It isn't until Janie is six years old that she realizes that she is black and different from Ms. Washburn's grandchildren. When Janie starts to attend school she is treated differently. Her classmates do not give Janie a chance to be friendly instead they decide Janie considers herself better than they are. This attitude causes Janie to make no friends at school.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  When Janie is sixteen years old her grandmother marries her off to a potato farmer named Logan Killicks. Janie's grandmother feels that Janie needs to be married to a man that can take care of her so that she isn't wasted on someone who can not support her. The marriage to Logan does not work out for Janie. Logan sees her as a spoiled child who needs to learn to be a farm wife. Logan becomes one of the many people who do not give Janie a chance to be herself.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  During her marriage to Logan Janie meets Joe Starks and runs off with him. Janie desperately wants Joe to be the one person to understand her and love her. However, what Joe sees in Janie is that she has class and he wants to make her one of his possessions. Janie's marriage to Joe looks ideal to many of the townspeople but on the inside she is very unhappy and still yearning to be loved.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  When Joe dies many years later Janie meets a younger man named Tea Cake. She leaves the small town to Eatonville with him and they are married. It is with Tea Cake that Janie is finally happy. Living with him in the muck with the migrant workers Janie is able to discover her self, what she can do, and how fulfilling true love is.

Physical therapy intervention with a stroke patient Essay

The clinical manifestations of neurologic disease are as varied as the disease processes themselves. Symptoms can be subtle or intense, fluctuating or permanent, an inconvenience or devastating. First clinical manifestation is Pain, it is considered an unpleasant sensory perception and emotional experience associated with actual or potential tissue damage or described in terms of such damage. Pain is therefore considered multidimensional and entirely subjective. Seizures are the result of abnormal paroxysmal discharges in the cerebral cortex, which then manifest as an alteration in sensation, behavior, movement, perception, or consciousness. The alteration may be short, as in a blank stare lasting only a second, or of longer duration, such as tonic- clonic grand mal seizure that can last several minutes. Dizziness, an abnormal sensation of imbalance or movement. It is fairly common in the elderly and one of the most common complaints encountered by health professionals. Visual Disturbances, visual defects that cause people to seek health care can range from the decreased visual acuity associated with aging to sudden blindness. Weakness, specifically muscle weakness is a common manifestation of CVA. Weakness frequently co exists with other symptoms of disease and can affect a variety of muscles, causing a wide range of disability. Weakness can be sudden and permanent, a sin stroke, or progressive, as in many neuromuscular diseases. Abnormal sensation, numbness, abnormal sensation, or loss of sensation is a manifestation of cerebrovascular accident. Altered sensation can affect small or large areas of the body. It is frequently associated with weakness or pain and is potentially disabling. Both numbness and weakness can significantly affect balance and coordination.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Assessment of cortical motor integration is carried out by asking the patient to perform a skilled act like asking a patient to throw a ball, move a chair. Successful performance requires the ability to understand the activity desired and normal motor strength. Failure signals cerebral dysfunction. Examining the Motor System, a thorough examination of the motor system includes an assessment of the muscle size, tone and strength, coordination, and balance. The patient is instructed to walk across the room while the examiner observes posture and gait. The muscles are inspected, and palpated if necessary, for their size and symmetry. Resistance and Abnormalities are documented after. Assessing the patient’s ability to flex or extend the extremities against resistance test muscle strength. Once the leg is straightened, it is exceedingly difficult for the examiner to flex the knee. Conversely, if the knee of the patient is flexed and is asked to straighten the leg against resistance, a more subtle disability can be elicited. For example, the right upper extremity is compared to the left upper extremity. In this way, subtle differences in muscle strength can be more easily detected and accurately described. Coordination in the hands and upper extremities is tested by having the patient perform rapid, alternating movements and point-to-point testing. First the patient is instructed to pat his or her thigh as fast as possible with each hand separately. Then the patient is instructed to alternately pronate and supinate the hand as rapidly as possible. The n lastly, the patient is asked to touch each of the fingers with the thumb in a consecutive motion. Speed, symmetry, and degree of difficulty are noted. Coordination in the lower extremities is tested by having the patient run the heel down the anterior surface of the tibia of the other leg. Each leg is tested in turn. The motor reflexes are involuntary contractions of muscles or muscle groups in response to abrupt stretching near the site of the muscle’s insertion. The tendon is struck directly with a reflex hammer or indirectly by striking the examiner’s thumb, which is placed firmly against the tendon. Testing these reflexes enables the examiner to assess involuntary reflex arcs that depend on the presence of afferent stretch receptors, spinal synapses, efferent motor fibers, and a variety of modifying influences from higher levels. Common reflexes that maybe tested include the deep tendon reflexes like biceps, brachioradialis, triceps, patellar, and ankle reflexes and superficial or cutaneous reflexes like abdominal reflexes and plantar or Babinski response.    References: Brunner, K., Suddarith, L. (2003) Medical- Surgical Nursing.   J. G. Ferguson Publishing Company.

1950’s Nostalgia

1950s Nostalgia Real and Imagined Stephanie Coontz is a professor of Family History at the Evergreen State College in Olympia Washington. She is a nationally recognized expert on the family and an award winning writer. In her 1997 book â€Å"The Way We Really Are: Coming to Terms with America’s Changing Families†, Stephanie Coontz wrote an essay entitled â€Å"What We Really Miss about the 1950s†. In Stephanie Coontz’s â€Å"What We Really Miss about the 1950s†, she argues that we as a country collectively remember the 1950s with a nostalgic tone, but we are not remembering this era in its entirety, nor are we completely accurate.She explains that the family and economic life that we remember and long for does not represent the whole truth of that era by any means. Coontz keeps a semi-formal tone throughout this essay. She begins by acknowledging the nostalgia that America feels toward the 1950s era. She continues by reminding us that there are also things that we do not miss about that time period in America. She elaborates on several points that we do specifically miss about the 1950s, such as the nuclear focus of family life and the profound wage increases.Coontz talks about how in the 1950s, employers and the government did a lot to help families prosper, including offering housing and employment assistance, as well as offering the GI Bill to armed services veterans who wanted to go back to school. Booming economic prosperity and the downturn in the economy that occurred in the 1970s, these were, she states, the real reasons behind the end of the 1950s family experiment.People sometimes reminisce on the past with nostalgia, remembering the â€Å"Good Old Days† and how values and ethics have seemed to disappear. In the 1950’s, like in no other decade, people became homeowners; prosperity was plentiful and bad times were thought to be something of the past. Capitalism was working and it was working well, to hav e a better life than one’s parents was only matter of willingness. Clearly it is evident why â€Å"Americans chose the 1950’s than any other single decade as the best time for children to grow up. † (Coontz, 32).In the essay â€Å"What We really Miss About the 1950’s† Stephanie Coontz has made several observations that â€Å"The Golden Age† was not brought by a thriving free-market competition but by large government spending to provide jobs and benefits to millions of Americans that which resembled a socialistic nation. Coontz implies that Americans miss high taxes and large government spending, because of the prosperity they brought. â€Å"40 percent of young men were eligible for veteran’s benefits, and these benefits were far more extensive than those available to Vietnam-era vets. (Coontz, 42). Apart from these benefits people began to have high paying jobs, many provided by government programs. The government also made it easie r for Americans to finance a house by â€Å"creating two new national institutions to facilitate home loans, allowed veterans to put down payments as low as a dollar on a house, and offered tax breaks to people who bought homes†(Coontz,42,43). WWII brought the highest level of taxation the United States has ever experienced; â€Å"top earning Americans paid 87 percent of their income while corporate taxes were 52 percent† (Coontz, 42). hese rates were kept well thru the 1950’s. Coontz argues that this extra revenue made it possible for many veterans to go to college almost tuition-free, doubling the percentage of college students from prewar levels. Throughout the 20th Century, families have radically changed. After WWI, a large transitional phase began and all the women that worked to support the war effort now had their jobs stripped from them. During the 1950's, there was a lifestyle in America that was essentially set in stone from birth. Television portraye d an image that women were to stay to home with the children.Shows such as, Leave it to Beaver, and Father Knows Best displayed a stereotypical way of life and structure in a family. â€Å"The sitcoms were simultaneously advertisements, etiquette manuals, and how-to lessons for a new way of organizing marriage and child rising† (Coontz, 39). Although television shows of the 1950's were not true reality, it seemed to be a good model at the time. Family life in the 50's era differs greatly from today's family unit. Children of that generation didn't have many choices when they were growing up. They typically followed the â€Å"blueprint† presented to them by their family and societal norms.Boys and girls went to school together throughout their youth, and upon completion, they would typically follow in their families’ footsteps. They were mainly interested in marriage. Starting a â€Å"functional† family was considered successful. An idle family to them was not only getting along, but focused also on appearance. Like the show Leave it to Beaver where the mother is â€Å"decked out in earrings and a pearl necklace. † (Soto, 29). The children and father also had to look prim and proper with their hair neatly combed and their clothes ironed.Women would stay at home caring for the children and household duties, while men would go to work and insure the family’s financial stability. The father would have full demeanor of the family and women were not expected to work outside. The issue that the â€Å"perfect† family is present in an important part of the advertisement, represent the idea that the people still want to live in that way, because the reality as Gary Soto show us is very different and difficult, and in the other hand as Coontz explain the ideal of this perfect family represented in the 50s generate more nostalgic and desire of any other idea if family lived in other decade.The perfect family is different of the real family in that the perfect family live in a scenario in which are no major problems with a very structured routine as Gary Soto explain, living a life which is not affected by external variables, and the real family in the other hand has different nuances in which are observed everyday problems and where it has be to solved, besides being a participant in a number of variables that affect daily living.There is a trend to idealize the past as Coontz says, being idealized the decade of the 50s by the presence of this perfect family, however, this perfect family hide problems as serious as sexism, racism and intolerance among others, being exposed that the existence of the perfect family is nothing more than a myth. At present, the perfect family is idealized because it offers a utopian alternative in which people can live better, although there is evidence that even in the best case in the pursuit of the perfect family are presented important collateral effects in other topi cs.The publicity that is currently being developed provides recurring images of the perfect family, showing that the idealization of the perfect family and the aspirational sense that it represents remains as a constant in the advertising in time as an effort to associate products with the perfect family because it is an important driver of purchase. Stephanie Coontz mention a show called Leave it to Beaver. They watched them to see how families were suppose to live – and also to get a little reassurance that they were headed in the right direction† (Coontz 39). This image led to the most common dream myths about America that, most people seem to be in agreements is that everyone can achieve the dream, everyone has equal playing field to obtain the dream, and the American dream is obtainable no matter what race the person is. This is not the case once here; many people soon find this out in their race for happiness.

E.B. White on Writing

E.B. White on Writing Meet essayist E.B. White- and consider the advice he has to offer on writing and the writing process. Andy, as he was known to friends and family, spent the last 50 years of his life in an old white farmhouse overlooking the sea in North Brooklin, Maine. Thats where he wrote most of his best-known essays, three childrens books, and a best-selling style guide. Introduction to E.B. White A generation has grown up since E.B. White died in that farmhouse in 1985, and yet his sly, self-deprecating voice speaks more forcefully than ever. In recent years, Stuart Little has been turned into a franchise by Sony Pictures, and in 2006 a second film adaptation of Charlottes Web was released. More significantly, Whites novel about some pig and a spider who was a true friend and a good writer has sold more than 50 million copies over the past half-century. Yet unlike the authors of most childrens books, E.B. White is not a writer to be discarded once we slip out of childhood. The best of his casually eloquent essays- which first appeared in Harpers, The New Yorker, and The Atlantic in the 1930s, 40s, and 50s- have been reprinted in Essays of E.B. White (Harper Perennial, 1999). In Death of a Pig, for instance, we can enjoy the adult version of the tale that was eventually shaped into Charlottes Web. In Once More to the Lake, White transformed the hoariest of essay topics- How I Spent My Summer Vacation- into a startling meditation on mortality.   For readers with ambitions to improve their own writing, White provided The Elements of Style (Penguin, 2005)- a lively revision of the modest guide first composed in 1918 by Cornell University professor William Strunk, Jr. It appears in our short list of essential Reference Works for Writers. White was awarded the Gold Medal for Essays and Criticism of the American Academy of Arts and Letters, the Laura Ingalls Wilder Award, the National Medal for Literature, and the Presidential Medal of Freedom. In 1973 he was elected to the American Academy of Arts and Letters. E.B. Whites Advice to a Young Writer What do you do when youre 17 years old, baffled by life, and certain only of your dream to become a professional writer? If you had been Miss R 35 years ago, you would have composed a letter to your favorite author, seeking his advice. And 35 years ago, you would have received this reply from E. B. White: Dear Miss R:At seventeen, the future is apt to seem formidable, even depressing. You should see the pages of my journal circa 1916.You asked me about writing- how I did it. There is no trick to it. If you like to write and want to write, you write, no matter where you are or what else you are doing or whether anyone pays any heed. I must have written half a million words (mostly in my journal) before I had anything published, save for a couple of short items in St. Nicholas. If you want to write about feelings, about the end of summer, about growing, write about it. A great deal of writing is not plotted- most of my essays have no plot structure, they are a ramble in the woods, or a ramble in the basement of my mind. You ask, Who cares? Everybody cares. You say, Its been written before. Everything has been written before. I went to college but not direct from high school; there was an interval of six or eight months. Sometimes it works out well to take a short vacation from the academic world- I have a grandson who took a year off and got a job in Aspen, Colorado. After a year of skiing and working, he is now settled into Colby College as a freshman. But I cant advise you, or wont advise you, on any such decision. If you have a counselor at school, Id seek the counselors advice. In college (Cornell), I got on the daily newspaper and ended up as editor of it. It enabled me to do a lot of writing and gave me a good journalistic experience. You are right that a persons real duty in life is to save his dream, but dont worry about it and dont let them scare you. Henry Thoreau, who wrote Walden, said, I learned this at least by my experiment: that if one advances confidently in the direction of his dreams, and endeavors to live the life which he has imagined, he will meet with a success unexpected in common hours. The sentence, after more than a hundred years, is still alive. So, advance confidently. And when you write something, send it (neatly typed) to a magazine or a publishing house. Not all magazines read unsolicited contributions, but some do. The New Yorker is always looking for new talent. Write a short piece for them, send it to The Editor. Thats what I did forty-some years ago. Good luck.Sincerely,E. B. White Whether youre a young writer like Miss R or an older one, Whites counsel still holds. Advance confidently, and good luck. E.B. White on a Writers Responsibility In an interview for The Paris Review in 1969, White was asked to express his views about the writers commitment to politics, international affairs. His response: A writer should concern himself with whatever absorbs his fancy, stirs his heart, and unlimbers his typewriter. I feel no obligation to deal with politics. I do feel a responsibility to society because of going into print: a writer has the duty to be good, not lousy; true, not false; lively, not dull; accurate, not full of error. He should tend to lift people up, not lower them down. Writers do not merely reflect and interpret life, they inform and shape life. E.B. White on Writing for the Average Reader In an essay titled Calculating Machine, White wrote disparagingly about the Reading-Ease Calculator, a device that presumed to measure the readability of an individuals writing style. There is, of course, no such thing as reading ease of written matter. There is the ease with which matter can be read, but that is a condition of the reader, not of the matter. There is no average reader, and to reach down toward this mythical character is to deny that each of us is on the way up, is ascending. It is my belief that no writer can improve his work until he discards the dulcet notion that the reader is feebleminded, for writing is an act of faith, not of grammar. Ascent is at the heart of the matter. A country whose writers are following the calculating machine downstairs is not ascending- if you will pardon the expression- and a writer who questions the capacity of the person at the other end of the line is not a writer at all, merely a schemer. The movies long ago decided that a wider communication could be achieved by a deliberate descent to a lower level, and they walked proudly down until they reached the cellar. Now they are groping for the light switch, hoping to find the way out. E.B. White on Writing With Style In the final chapter of The Elements of Style (Allyn Bacon, 1999), White presented 21 suggestions and cautionary hints to help writers develop an effective style. He prefaced those hints with this warning: Young writers often suppose that style is a garnish for the meat of prose, a sauce by which a dull dish is made palatable. Style has no such separate entity; is nondetachable, unfilterable. The beginner should approach style warily, realizing that it is himself he is approaching, no other; and he should begin by turning resolutely away from all devices that are popularly believed to indicate style- all mannerisms, tricks, adornments. The approach to style is by way of plainness, simplicity, orderliness, sincerity. Writing is, for most, laborious and slow. The mind travels faster than the pen; consequently, writing becomes a question of learning to make occasional wing shots, bringing down the bird of thought as it flashes by. A writer is a gunner, sometimes waiting in his blind for something to come in, sometimes roaming the countryside hoping to scare something up. Like other gunners, he must cultivate patience; he may have to work many covers to bring down one partridge. Youll notice that while advocating a plain and simple style, White conveyed his thoughts through artful metaphors. E.B. White on Grammar Despite the prescriptive tone of The Elements of Style, Whites own applications of grammar and syntax were primarily intuitive, as he once explained in The New Yorker: Usage seems to us peculiarly a matter of ear. Everyone has his own prejudices, his own set of rules, his own list of horribles. The English language is always sticking a foot out to trip a man. Every week we get thrown, writing merrily along. English usage is sometimes more than mere taste, judgment, and education- sometimes its sheer luck, like getting across a street. E.B. White on Not Writing In a book review titled Writers at Work, White described his own writing habits- or rather, his habit of putting off writing. The thought of writing hangs over our mind like an ugly cloud, making us apprehensive and depressed, as before a summer storm, so that we begin the day by subsiding after breakfast, or by going away, often to seedy and inconclusive destinations: the nearest zoo, or a branch post office to buy a few stamped envelopes. Our professional life has been a long shameless exercise in avoidance. Our home is designed for the maximum of interruption, our office is the place where we never are. Yet the record is there. Not even lying down and closing the blinds stops us from writing; not even our family, and our preoccupation with same, stops us.

How Nail Polish Works and What Its Made Of

How Nail Polish Works and What It's Made Of Nail polish is a type of lacquer thats used to decorate fingernails and toenails. Because it has to be strong, flexible and resist chipping and peeling, nail polish contains a number of chemicals. Heres a look at the chemical composition of nail polish and the function of each of the ingredients. Chemical Composition of Nail Polish Basic clear nail polish can be made from nitrocellulose dissolved in butyl acetate or ethyl acetate. The nitrocellulose forms a shiny film as the acetate solvent evaporates. However, most polishes contain an extensive list of ingredients. Solvents Solvents are liquids used to mix other ingredients in nail polish to yield a uniform product. Usually, the first ingredient(s) in nail polish are solvents. Once you apply the polish, the solvents evaporate away. The amount and type of solvent determine how thick a polish is and how long it will take to dry. Examples of solvents include ethyl acetate, butyl acetate,  and alcohol. Toluene, xylene,  and formalin or formaldehyde are toxic chemicals that were once common in nail polish but are rarely found now or found only in low concentrations. Film Formers Film formers are chemicals that form the smooth surface on a coat of nail polish. The most common film former is nitrocellulose. Resins Resins make the film adhere to the nail bed. Resins are ingredients that add depth, gloss,  and hardness to the film of nail polish. An example of a polymer used as a resin in nail polish is tosylamide-formaldehyde resin. Plasticizers While resins and film formers give polish strength and gloss, they produce a brittle lacquer. Plasticizers are chemicals that help keep polish flexible and reduce the chance that it will crack or chip, which they do by linking to polymer chains and increasing the distance between them. Camphor is a common plasticizer. Pigments Pigments are chemicals that add color to nail polish. An astonishing variety of chemicals may be used as nail polish pigments. Common pigments include iron oxides and other colorants, such as youd find in paint or varnish. Pearls Nail polish that has a shimmery or glittery effect may contain pearlescent minerals, such as titanium dioxide or ground mica. Some polishes may contain bits of plastic glitter or other additives that produce a special effect.   Additional Ingredients Nail polishes may contain thickening agents, such as stearalkonium hectorite, to keep the other ingredients from separating and to make the polish easier to apply. Some polishes contain ultraviolet filters, such as benozophenone-1, which help prevent discoloration when the polish is exposed to sunlight or other forms of ultraviolet light.

Strategic Financial Management Master Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3500 words

Strategic Financial Management Master - Essay Example Another school of thought believes that dividends are adverse for the average shareholder as they attract taxes and cause fiscal disadvantages. Last but not the least the third group lauds large dividends as positive signal to shareholders that all is well. So where does the modern shareholder satisfaction stand in relation to dividend policies This is the main issue which I will review in my paper below. This question relates to a consideration of the corporate dividend policy as to whether shareholders should be paid sufficient dividends or whether or not they are making sizeable profits on the stock market. Over the last half century academics have spoken in great depth over this issue and suggested conflicting theoretical frameworks to explain their points of view.(Frankfurter 2002).The problem is that these assertions often lack empirical depth to the criticism and stumble upon self contradictions in an attempt to explain corporate dividend behaviour.(Frankfurter 2002).Today academic opinion is divided as to whether dividends are attractive to shareholders and will have a positive impact in stock prices.(Frankfurter 2002 )Another school of thought contends that prices are negatively correlated with dividend payout levels.(Frankfurter 2002).The third view is that firm dividend policy is irrelevant in stock price valuation. (Frankfurter 2002).My paper will discuss and try to recon cile all these views towards a better theory and understanding of this issue. These views are best summed up as being based upon, the tax effect ( Litzenberger and Ramaswamy (1980),)Clientele effects explanations (Elton and Gruber, 1970), Agency theory explanations(Easterbrook 1984), Signalling models(John and Williams (1985), and psychological/sociological explanations (Frankfurter and Lane 1992). Frankfurter and Wood (2002) have even gone ahead to suggest that none of the dividend theories are unequivocally verified. Academics and theorists like (Adam Smith 1937) have recognised that there will always be agency costs related to taking care of shareholder priorities and controlling unruly management staff.(Corporate Governance issues). 2- Definitions and views from academics Dividend policy has a large bearing on agency costs and many academics have recognised this (Fama and Fama) but their belief that payments of large dividends would potentially compensate for the shareholders are often ignored during decision making in a company according to John and Kalay 1982 "Debt covenants to minimize dividend payments are necessary to prevent bondholder wealth transfers to shareholders .Although potentially substantial in precipitation of agency costs, its dividend policy is not a major source of bondholder wealth expropriation. In firms where dividend payouts are limited by bondholder covenants, dividend payout levels are still below the maximum level allowed by the constraints" (Frankfurter

Menu Comparison Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Menu Comparison - Research Paper Example Digital displays menus provide digital displays of food and beverages products offered by the restaurant. Online menus utilize the website illustrations of products offered by the restaurants (Goodale 58). This menu comparison paper illustrates the similarities and differences of menus of two popular restaurants in the San Francisco Bay Area. These restaurants are Saison Restaurant and Maruya restaurant. The Maruya restaurant is operated by Chefs Hide Suyeoshi and Masaki Sasaki. The chefs are both sushi chef trained in Tokyo. The operating philosophy of the chefs entails simplicity presentation of the sushi. In order to get the desired simplicity level, the chefs follow meticulous fish preparation steps. The restaurant also offers the sushi bar. The bar is modeled according to Tokyo style requirements. Maruya’s sushi bar is the most unique aspect in the entire San Francisco Bay Area. The sushi bar is made using 7 inches of the handcrafted Cyprus wood. The wine selection at the Maruya restaurant is carefully selected. Majority of wine products at the Maruya restaurant are French and Italian wines. The wines are used to compliment the fish. For customers who love sake, there are several sake products to choose from; from dry sake to full body sake. Saison restaurant sources each and every item used to make its food and beverage products, from the surrounding areas. Saison illustrates the abundant resources found in the San Francisco bay Area. Every morning, a new menu is developed according to the finest offerings from the network of farms, fisheries and ranches. Saison offers unique American style dining approach. This gives it a competitive advantage in the restaurant sector of San Francisco Bay Area. Therefore, customers get a satisfactory experience due to the unique products and services offered by the restaurant. There are several equipment and materials that are used in preparation and storage of menus. Paper menu is the

Crime in International Context Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Crime in International Context - Essay Example The researcher states that application of the state-territorial principle is argued to give rise to a dualistic approach towards a particular crime because of the significant amount of differences between countries’ stance and legislation to tackle to various offenses. The exact nature and limitation of this principle will be discussed through the example of Raymond Davis and Aafia Siddiqui in later parts of the prose to help further understanding of the state-territorial principle and why criminologists need to look beyond it. The substance of this prose will systematically assess all aspects of transnational crimes and demonstrate both national and international contexts in which the crime is prosecuted and demonstrate it primarily through the scourge of human trafficking in the United States. The prose will also assess the strategies adopted by countries to help curb the problem. II. State-Territorial Principle The state-territorial principle dictates that sovereign states are able to prosecute crimes that are committed within their borders and hence, triggers a number of complications when it comes to dealing with crimes that require legislation beyond the country’s borders. The principle bars the country from exercising control and prosecuting the perpetrator outside its border. However, the principle stands null and void for those countries that possess universal jurisdiction or those who have been granted to exercise their control by other principles such as the â€Å"Principle of nationality†, â€Å"the passive personality principle† or the ‘protective principle†. The territorial principle is based on the premise that criminal jurisdiction is based on the place where the crime was perpetrated. Having defined the state territorial principle and the dynamics involved in its application on the prosecution and tackling of crimes, criminologists have often argued that criminology needs to move beyond the state-territor ial principle. It is a logical approach to decide the course of jurisdiction; however, there are several arguments for and against it. As the state-territorial principle bars research analysts from establishing theories to study international and transnational crimes. It is an undeniable fact that every country establishes legislation to tackle crimes according to the perception and gravity of the crime that depends upon the cultural stance of the country. Therefore, in order to pave way for the researcher and establish a more uniform approach to these crimes, it is important to move beyond the state –territorial principle. Furthermore, sometimes people may feel that the culprit of a transnational crime has not received a punishment that is proportional or equal to his or her offence; however, it is the country’s law and regulation that allow that punishment for the crime as a result in order to draw a verdict that is acceptable to the legal system of both countries. S tate territorial principle has been met with a highly dual approach by researchers and critics. Some critics have argued, â€Å"As a matter of convenience crimes should be dealt with by those states whose social order is most closely affected, and in general this will be the state on whose territories the crime are committed†¦

Effective methods of understanding and treating PTSD

Effective methods of understanding and treating PTSD The treatment related publications of the last twenty years places a large amount of attention on determining the most useful psychological therapy for clients with a diagnosis of posttraumatic stress disorder, PTSD. The overall aim of this paper is to critically evaluate current cognitive models of PTSD and literature on the effectiveness of cognitive behavioural therapies to treat this disorder based on these models. Definitions of PTSD The 4th edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, DSM-IV (APA, 1994) defines trauma as: (a) The individual experienced, witnessed or was confronted with an event that involved actual or perceived threat to life or physical integrity; and (b) the individuals emotional response to this event included horror, helplessness or intense fear, Foa and Meadows (1997, p. 450). The psychological symptoms connected with PTSD are categorised into three groups of symptoms in DSM-IV: The main characteristics include re-experiencing (in the form of flashbacks, intrusive thoughts, and distressing dreams), avoidance/numbing and heightened arousal, after the person is subjected to a traumatic incident. (Foa Rothbaurn, 1992). The next group includes avoidance of stimuli trauma-reminding stimuli and symptoms of emotional numbing (Foa, Hearst-Ikeda, Perry, 1995; Litz, 1993). The final symptom group includes heightened arousal e.g. hypervigilance, exaggerated startle response, difficulty sleeping and irritability (APA, 1994). Current Government Guidelines on the treatment of PTSD Determining effective and efficient treatments for PTSD has come to be seen as important due to the conditions prevalence and the many techniques and interventions available. The National Institute for Clinical Excellence, NICE, reviewed the most robust outcome research and produced guidelines, to provide information and direction for the psychological management of PTSD in adult sufferers (NICE, 2005). The guidelines were developed from an independent, methodical, rigorous and multistage procedure of selecting, examining and assessing evidence for the successful treatment of PTSD. These guidelines conclude that individuals with PTSD should receive either trauma focused Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (TFCBT) or Eye Movement Desensitisation and Reprocessing (EMDR). However, a distinction is made between single incident trauma and more complex presentations, and the guidelines suggest increasing the total number of sessions accordingly. Although the guidelines appear helpful for the tre atment of single incident PTSD, they are arguably not as informative for treatment approaches for a large group of individuals with complex PTSD. This presents difficulties for the clinician and patient in deciding the most effective therapeutic options. Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT) is the most extensively studied therapy for individuals with PTSD (Foa Meadows, 1997) and many studies support its efficacy in reducing symptom severity (e.g. Resick Schnicke, 1992; Foa, Rothbaurn, 1992; Foa et al., 1995; Foa Jaycox, 1996; Riggs, Murdock, 1991; Richards, Lovell, Marks, 1994; Thompson, Charlton, Kerry, Lee, Turner, 1995). However, CBT for PTSD encompasses diverse techniques. These include exposure procedures, cognitive restructuring procedures, and combinations of both these techniques. Exposure Therapy Exposure therapy is derived from the idea that imaginal exposure (IE) to the trauma or feared situation, leads to a decrease in symptoms. The theory argues enduring activation of traumatic memories result in processing of the emotional information, lessening of anxiety and assimilation of accurate memories (Foa et al., 1995). Much research has shown that treatment involving exposure therapy is effective in decreasing PTSD symptoms (e.g. Foa et al., 1999; Frueh, Turner, Beidel, Mirabella, Jones, 1996; Keane, Fairbank, Cadell, Zimmering, 1989). Foa, Rothbaum, Riggs, and Murdoch (1991) investigated exposure therapy, stress inoculation (a type of Anxity Management Treatment, AMT), supportive counselling, and a non-treatment group in the management of rape-related PTSD. Clinical measures of symptoms and standardized psychometric tests were examined before and after treatment as well as at a three month follow-up. The stress inoculation intervention showed superior results to the counselling and non-treatment conditions at post-test. However, at the follow-up, the individuals participating in exposure therapy showed more improvements of PTSD symptoms than individuals in the other groups. Research has investigated the efficiency of exposure therapy compared to different methods of treatment. For instance, exposure therapy and cognitive therapy were investigated by Tarrier et al. (1999) for the management of individuals with PTSD arising from various traumatic incidents. Although both approaches demonstrated a noteworthy decrease in PTSD symptoms that was still present at 6-months follow up there was no non-treatment control against which these two treatments could be evaluated. Similarly, Foa et al. (1999) compared exposure therapy to AMT and then combined the two treatments. These three groups were compared to a non-treatment control group. All three of these treatments successfully decreased symptoms of rape-related PTSD and improved more than the non-treatment control group. However there was no significant variation among the treatment groups on outcome measures. In a study that once again compared exposure therapy to cognitive therapy, Marks, Lovell, Noshirvani, Livanou, and Thrasher (1998) examined these two treatments alone and in combination in outpatients with PTSD secondary to a wide range of traumatic events. A relaxation therapy condition was employed as the comparison group. The three active treatment groups demonstrated significant reduction in symptoms compared to the relaxation sample. These intervention groups were not markedly different from on another on the main treatment outcome measures. Several investigations have advanced the field of PTSD treatment, even though the methodology utilized in the outcome study limited the conclusions that could be drawn. Frank and Stewart (1983) reported the effects of systematic desensitization on women who had been raped and who developed significant psychological symptomatology. Compared to an untreated comparison group, those women treated with graduated exposure improved most on a range of anxiety and depression symptom measures. Imaginal and in-vivo exposure was compared in a randomized study of survivors of varying traumatic events (Richards, Lovell, and Marks,1994). At the 12-month follow-up, patients reported consistent reductions in PTSD symptoms and improved social adjustment. This data further substantiates the efficiency of exposure treatment for some individuals, and also suggest that improvements in symptoms are also reflected in critical domains of life functioning. In conclusion, the existing data advocates the use of exposure therapy in the treatment of PTSD. In a previous review of this literature, Solomon, Gerrity, and Muff, (1992), (Sited in Shapiro, 1995) derived the same conclusion from data available at that time. Similar conclusions were drawn by Otto, Penava, Pollack, and Smoller (1996) in a more recent review of the literature. In what may prove to be an important lesson for the treatment of individuals exposed to traumatic events, Foa, Hearst-Ikeda, and Perry (1995) investigated the effectiveness of a short-term intervention to prevent the development of chronic PTSD in females who had been recently raped. The program was based upon that which worked well in earlier trials with chronic PTSD. Exposure therapy figured prominently in the package of treatment and also included elements of education, breathing retraining, and cognitive restructuring. When individuals receiving the package were compared to a control group, this study found that at 2 months post-treatment only ten percent of the treatment sample met the diagnosis for PTSD, while seventy percent of the untreated comparison group did. As information continues to grow on exposure therapy, there is a clear requirement for research to investigate combinations of psychological treatment, to utilize screening measures that consider occupational and social performance, and to access the outcome of interventions on co-morbid psychological difficulties. Unmistakably, the existing empirical research reveals the importance of extending the application of exposure approaches to PTSD patients. However future studies assessing the generalization of exposure therapy from laboratory trials to clinical settings would be particularly useful. When exposure therapy has been compared to other forms of cognitive therapy, such as cognitive restructuring (see below), it has proved to be more successful in reducing PTSD. Tarrier et al., (1999) assigned 72 people with chronic PTSD to either a Cognitive Therapy (CT) group or an imaginal exposure (IE) therapy group, and concluded that there was no noteworthy differentiation between the two treatment conditions initially or at 12 months post treatment. Participants recruited were obtained from a sample of referrals to primary and secondary mental health services and voluntary services, indicating that they were representative of a genuine clinical sample. However, 50% of the sample remained above clinical significance for PTSD symptoms after treatment was completed, although this dropped to 25% at six-month follow-up. This lack of improvement may have been influenced by participants failure to attend sessions regularly. Furthermore, those who did not show improvement rated the trea tment as less convincing and were rated as not as motivated by the clinician. Therefore, it is argued that motivation for therapy and regular attendance plays an important role in outcome of therapy regardless of treatment model. A further limitation of this study was that no control group was used and non-specific treatment factors and spontaneous remission could also account for the improvements in reported symptoms. Cognitive Restructuring Cognitive restructuring is derived from the theory that discovering and altering catastrophic and inaccurate interpretation of the trauma leads to a decrease in symptoms. Some of the latest models have emphasised the significance of altering thinking distortions in the rehabilitation of individuals who have experienced trauma (Ehlers Clarke, 2000). Ehlers, Clark, Hackmann, McManus, and Fennell (2005) utilized cognitive therapy based on the cognitive model of PTSD (see figure 1. Ehlers Clarke, 2000). From this model, the aim of therapy is to alter overly negative interpretations, amend the disturbance in autobiographical recollection and to eliminate the unhelpful behavioural and cognitive strategies (see figure 2, Ehlers et al., 2005). In a randomised controlled trial of twenty-eight participants diagnosed with PTSD. Fourteen participants were assigned at random to cognitive therapy treatment or a 13-week waiting-list condition. Those receiving cognitive therapy had 12 weekly treatment sessions, based on the Ehlers and Clarke (2000) model of trauma focused CBT. Participants completed self-report screenings of anxiety, mood and PTSD symptoms, and the Sheehan Disability Scale (APA, 2000). Measures were administered before and after treatment and at 6-months follow up. Findings revealed that cognitive therapy for PTSD was signifi cantly better than a three month waiting-list group on symptoms of PTSD, disability and symptoms of anxiety and affect. This study had no dropouts, which is a significant improvement on other studies, which yielded high dropout rates, (e.g. Tarrier et al., 1999). Participants displayed a positive change in cognitive appraisals. The Ehlers and Clarke (2000) model suggest that two additional paths of change; alteration in the autobiographical recollection of the trauma, and the discontinuation of maintenance behaviours and cognitive strategies are integral in reducing symptoms of PTSD. While the treatment incorporated these other aspects, these have not been measured systematically, so it is difficult to conclude whether clients experienced a change in these two areas. Further analysis indicated that demographic, trauma and diagnostic variable did not predict intervention results, signifying that the approach is pertinent to a broad scope of individual who have experienced trauma. Conversely, the extent of discrepancy of trauma and small sample numbers suggests that this finding would not be present in a larger sample. Co-morbid depression and previous trauma history, which was present in over half the sample, did not negatively affect outcome. Combinations of therapy Resick and Schnicke (1992) have proffered a multidimensional behavioural treatment for females who have PTSD associated with sexual assault. This treatment, known as cognitive processing therapy (CPT), includes components of exposure therapy, AMT, and cognitive restructuring. The cognitive therapy element of CPT involves tackling central thinking distortions found among females who have been assaulted. These authors have developed interventions which particularly deal with concerns of trust, self-confidence, safety and intimacy in the lives of trauma victims. In a preliminary evaluation of CPT, the authors compared outcomes at pre-treatment, post-treatment, 3 months follow-up, and 6 months follow-up for an intervention group and a non-treatment group (no random assignment was used). On clinician ratings and psychometric inventories of PTSD, the individuals receiving CPT improved significantly. Impressively at the post-treatment assessment, none of the treated patients met criteria fo r PTSD. In another study, Resick, Nishith, and Astin (2000) evaluated CPT and exposure therapy in the management of sexual assault-related PTSD. Both approaches proved successful in general and were more successful than a non-treatment control group. CPT did also seem to reduce comorbid symptoms of depression, as well as those of PTSD. Combination therapy that incorporates a number of cognitive-behavioural techniques have the advantage of addressing various difficulties that individuals with PTSD may experience, in addition to integrating methods that have a considerable scientific evidence base in the clinical literature. An intervention incorporating exposure therapy, AMT, and cognitive restructuring as the main elements for treating PTSD was proposed by Keane, Fisher, Krinsley, and Niles (1994). This treatment utilizes six stages as a means of treating severe and chronic PTSD, it incorporates the following: (1) behavioural stabilization; (2) trauma psycho-education; (3) AMT; (4) trauma focus work; (5) relapse prevention skills; and (6) aftercare procedures. Although this approach has clinical appeal, it wasnt until psychologists Fecteau and Nicki (1999) examined such a package in a randomized clinical trial for PTSD resulting from automobile accidents that the impact of a combination package such as that proposed by Keane et al. (1994) was assessed. Their intervention consisted of psycho-education, relaxation, exposure, cognitive restructuring, and guided behavioural exercises. Patients were randomly assigned to the treatment group or non-treatment comparison group and received some 8-10 sessions of individualized treatment. The outcome of the treatment was effective as assessed by clinical ratings, self-report questionnaires, and lab-based psycho-physiological evaluation methods. Described by the authors as clinically and statistically significant, these treatment outcomes were sustained at the 6-month post treatment evaluation. Bryant, Moulds, Guthrie, Dang, and Nixon (2003) studied the effects of IE alone or IE with CR in the treatment of PTSD. They hypothesised a CR and IE treatment combination would lead to significantly better decrease in PTSD symptoms than exposure on its own, which would be more beneficial than a supportive counselling condition. Fifty-eight civilian trauma victims, diagnosed with PTSD as measured by the Clinician Administered PTSD Scale, version II, CAPS-2, (Blake et al., 1995) were randomly allocated to one of the 3 conditions. Each participant received eight weekly 90-minute sessions of either IE, CR and IE or supportive counselling. Participants completed assessments at pre and post intervention and six months following. These measured PTSD symptoms and psychopathology. Forty-five participants completed treatment and analysis indicated that dropouts had higher scores for depression, avoidance and higher catastrophic cognitions than those who completed. Results indicated that parti cipants receiving both IE and IE/CR had a siginifcantly better decrease in PTSD symptoms and anxiety than supportive counselling (SC). The main revelation of this investigation was that treatment comprising of IE and CR leads to significantly better reductions in CAPS-II scores compared to treatment involving IE alone. Furthermore, those receiving IE/CR, but not IE on its own, gave accounts of less avoidance, depression and catastrophic thoughts than individuals in receipt SC. The findings from this research indicated that the combination of IE and CR are successful in decreasing symptoms of PTSD. It can be argued that the reasons why IE/CR may have been more effective than augmented treatments in the past (e.g. Foa et al., 1999) was that the research prudently controlled for the duration of time spent on every section of treatment. Furthermore, participants were instructed on CR before commencing IE so they understood the rationale behind the techniques prior to addressing the strong emotional components of IE. This may have increased their understanding and belief that it was a credible treatment approach. The outcome that CR improved the benefits of IE treatment could have been a result of a number of likely mechanisms. IE and CR may consist of similar aspects, such as processing of emotional memories, amalgamation of corrective information and acomplishment of self-mastery (Marks, 2000). Combining the two approaches may give the patient more chances to achieve treatment gains. CR may have lead to greater decrease in symptoms as it explicitly attended to identifying and changing unhelpful thoughts that may add to the maintenance of PTSD and related difficulties (Ehlers Clarke, 2000). Paunovic and Ost (2001), compared treatment outcome data for CBT and exposure therapy for sixteen refugees with PTSD. The authors excluded those who became too distressed in the initial interview, expressed a lack of confidence in the therapist or were misusing alcohol or drugs. Results indicated there was no significant difference between participants completing CBT or exposure therapy, being similar to Tarrier et als (1999) findings. Criticisms of Paunovic and Ost (2001)s study are that participants did not use a self-report trauma measure, so although results are positive, there is no clear analysis of whether participants felt their trauma symptoms decreased as a result of the treatment. Further, it is not possible to generalise these findings to traumatised refugees in general, as this work is unique. Working with the use of an interpreter raises several ethical and sensitive issues, as the participant must be able to develop a therapeutic alliance with the therapist and trust the interpreter (Tribe, 2007). It could be argued that participants may have been experiencing a greater degree of trauma, not least because they had not yet learned the native language. Discussion The most successful CBT treatments seem to be those that involve repeated exposure to the traumatic memory (Foa et al., 1991; Foa et al., 1999; Foa Rothbaum, 1992) on cognitive restructuring of the interpretation of the traumatic event, (Ehlers Clarke, 2000) or a combination of these approaches, (Resick Schnicke, 1992). Importantly, studies have concluded that trauma focused CBT is more successful than supportive counselling (Blanchard et al., 2003; Bryant et al., 2003). Whilst the studies reviewed have helpfully added to our understanding of PTSD there are numerous limitations of the applications of the findings. One in particular is an over-reliance on non-clinical samples of participants such that many claims of clinically effective therapy have been made from research with participants who were not within mental health systems, and despite having PTSD symptoms had not actively sought treatment. In addition, dropout rates in studies are high, particularly for those studies that did not use a clinical sample. This might have skewed the evidence particularly with approaches that used exposure-based therapy. Furthermore, most of the studies reviewed screened out those individuals experiencing the greatest amount of distress, avoidance and co-morbidity. Therefore results are biased towards those clients who were able to tolerate treatment and whose symptoms were not as chronic. Indeed, inclusion and exclusion criteria appear to have a great impact on outcome of treatment. For example, studies with a strict inclusion criteria (e.g. no co-morbidity, substance misuse, self harm) appear to have significant improvements, whilst other studies i.e. Kubany et al., (2003), allowed participants to continue with other therapy while embarking on their therapy. This makes it methodologically difficult to ascertain exactly what has been effective in reducing PTSD symptoms. As inclusion and exclusion criteria are idiosyncratic across studies, it makes it difficult to draw general conclusions regarding treatment effectiveness with a clinical population across studies. Studies often chose to focus therapy on identified groups, e.g. police officers. However, clients who experience PTSD do not form a homogeneous group and further, the symptoms experienced may be diverse even within a sample of individuals who have experienced the same trauma. Treatment studies often do not control for other factors that may be important contributing factors in outcome such as the role of education, quality of the therapeutic relationship, therapeutic alliance and other nonspecific factors. The literature was generally from American, British or European sources although clearly trauma is intercultural. This raises issues about how different cultures interpret PTSD, an essentially Western concept, and also whether the treatments advocated would be effective cross-culturally. Previous research has strongly indicated that PTSD is not an appropriate term to use in non-western situations (Summerfield, 1997), hence therapeutic approaches need to account for this. It is not clear in the majority of studies when the participant experienced the trauma, and at what point therapy started. Frequently these characteristics are omitted from studies, therefore making it difficult to compare effectiveness of studies. It is essential to think about the types of individuals that have been represented in the research and to look at whether it is representative of those who seek treatment. Finally, very little has been reported on the impact of other difficulties an individual is experiencing as PTSD can have a broad ranging effect on an individuals quality of life and functioning and most often clients have more complex presentations. Only very few studies reviewed controlled for this variable (see Ehlers et al., 2005). This is an inherent difficulty when completing resea rch with a trauma population as within research it is important to obtain a sample that have a similar degree of difficulties in order to assess treatment efficacy. Several papers have evaluated different types of therapy according to particular groups. However, it appears that one size does not fit all in relation to PTSID. In particular the issues of culture and gender are of importance (see Liebling Ojiambo-Ochieng, 2000; Sheppard, 2000). Individual formulations of presenting problems and contexts, which informs therapy that is adapted to suit individual clients needs, may in fact be more helpful. It remains important to consider individual differences and client choice when offering trauma therapy. Trauma therapy outcome studies are limited by the fact that sufferers usually have other mental health problems alongside PTSD such as depression or social anxiety. Evaluation of effective treatment of trauma survivors therefore might need to go beyond medical diagnostic categories as most of the research excludes clients with co-morbid problems. A multifaceted intervention, based on clients own views, which addressed these other difficulties, could assist in decreasing relapse and greaten the long-lasting effectiveness of any PTSD intervention. As outlined in the methodological limitations section, much of the research reviewed has not used a genuine clinical sample, there are high dropout rates, widely variable inclusion and exclusion criteria, and the heterogeneity of PTSD has perhaps not yet been accounted for. It is therefore difficult to ascertain what is specifically helpful or effective within the treatment components. This seems to be the next area for consideration in resea rch. Further research into the optimal length of treatment and timing of therapy, the effect of co-morbidity and the differing effects of individual and group therapy approaches for traumatised clients are required. Further controlled research is needed to ascertain if the types of therapies reviewed can provide long term lasting effects in reducing PTSD symptomatology. At present the scientific evidence is mainly restricted to the evaluation of short term, focused treatment approaches, and it would be helpful to have controlled studies on longer-term interventions for more complex cases of trauma. Further research would benefit from considering the clients views and experiences of therapy, this perspective was lacking in the literature reviewed. Service user and carer perspectives are beyond the scope of this review, however they have been highlighted as an important consideration within the NICE guidelines and therefore require further consideration in future research. Conclusion There appear to be at least three approaches with exceptional empirical evidence for treating PTSD; exposure therapy, cognitive therapy or a combination of these methods. These three interventions have empirical validation in well-controlled clinical trials, demonstrate strong treatment effect sizes, and seem to work well across varied populations of trauma sufferers. However future research to examine the efficacy of these methods in clinical environments is necessary. There is much to be learned about the treatment of PTSD. It is certain there will be no simple answers for treating people who have experienced the most horrific events life offers. Undoubtedly, combinations of treatments as proposed by Keane et al. (1994) and Resick and Schnicke (1992) may prove to be the most powerful interventions. PTSD research in this area is only in the earliest stages of its development. Finally, an assumption about the uniformity of traumatic events has been made in the literature in general. Although it is reasonable to speculate that fundamental similarities exist among patients who have experienced diverse traumatic events and then develop PTSD, whether these patients will respond to clinical interventions in the same way is an empirical question that has yet to be addressed. Studies posing a question such as this would be a welcome addition to the clinical literature: Will people with PTSD resulting from combat, torture, genocide, and natural disasters all improve as well as those treated successfully following rape, motor vehicle accidents, and assaults? This is a crucial issue that requires additional scientific study in order to provide clinicians with the requisite evidence supporting the use of available techniques. Research on the prevalence of exposure to traumatic events and the prevalence of PTSD has mainly been carried out in the United States. Yet there are fundamental errors in assuming that these prevalence rates apply even to other Western, developed countries. Studies that examine the prevalence of PTSD and other disorders internationally are clearly warranted. Implicit in this recommendation is the need to examine the extent to which current assessment instrumentation is culturally sensitive to the ways in which traumatic reactions are expressed internationally. Much work on this topic will be required before definitive conclusions regarding prevalence rates of PTSD internationally can be drawn. Studies of the effectiveness of the psychological treatments across cultures and ethnic groups are also needed. What may be effective for Western populations may be inadequate or possibly even unacceptable treatment for people who reside in other areas of the world and who have different world views, beliefs, and perspectives. This issue will need to be more closely examined before we can draw definitive conclusions. It is suggested that despite the type of treatment provided to individuals with trauma there is ultimately a necessity for a flexible, integrative approach to treatment in order to address the multifaceted and changing requirements of individual trauma survivors. A range of outcomes has been revealed with the types of treatments outlined in this review, it is uncertain which individuals will respond greatest to various treatment approaches. Nevertheless, what is important in determining the effectiveness of any psychological treatment of PTSD is that it is reliant upon forming and upholding a therapeutic alliance that is strong enough for the client to experience as safe and trusting for positive emotional modifications to take place.